Exploring the role of nerves in asthma; insights from the study of cough.

Cough in asthma predicts disease severity, prognosis, and is a common and troublesome symptom. Cough is the archetypal airway neuronal reflex, yet little is understood about the underlying neuronal mechanisms. It is generally assumed that symptoms arise because of airway hyper-responsiveness and/or airway inflammation, but despite using inhaled corticosteroids and bronchodilators targeting these pathologies, a large proportion of patients have persistent coughing. This review focuses on the prevalence and impact of cough in asthma and explores data from pre-clinical and clinical studies which have explored neuronal mechanisms of cough and asthma. We present evidence to suggest patients with asthma have evidence of neuronal dysfunction, which is further heightened and exaggerated by both bronchoconstriction and airway eosinophilia. Identifying patients with excessive coughing with asthma may represent a neuro-phenotype and hence developing treatment for this symptom is important for reducing the burden of disease on patients' lives and currently represents a major unmet clinical need.

[Postoperative recurrence of spontaneous pneumothorax].

Few reports on recurrence after thoracoscopic bullectomy for spontaneous pneumothorax specify the follow-up period and follow-up ratio. Because of the variation in follow-up periods, many reported recurrence rates were not comparable. Some reports compared simple recurrence rate (number of recurrent cases/number of operated cases) of different groups with different follow-up periods. In this study, we employ the Kaplan-Meier method along with a set of optimal follow-up periods and ratios in order to determine a more reliable recurrence rate. Consecutive 68 patients (74 surgical procedures) underwent thoracoscopic bullectomy for spontaneous pneumothorax at our institution between November 2000 and December 2005. A follow-up survey was conducted by phone to determine the rate of recurrent pneumothorax. The follow-up ratio and the mean follow-up period were 92.6% and 1,316 +/- 481 days, respectively. Postoperative recurrence was confirmed for 4 patients. The interval up to recurrence was 144, 345, 476 and 616 days after the bullectomy, respectively. All cases of recurrent pneumothorax occurred within 2 years following the bullectomy. The 1-year, 2-year and 3-year cumulative recurrence rate was 3.0%, 6.3% and 6.3%, respectively. In light of these findings, we feel that comparison analysis of pneumothorax recurrence rates should be evaluated using the Kaplan-Meier method, furthermore, our data suggests that a follow-up period of 2 or more years is advisable.

A study of the in vitro interaction between lidocaine and premedications using human liver microsomes.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate potential interactions between lidocaine (lignocaine) metabolism and premedication drugs, i.e. psychotropic and antianxiety agents (diazepam, midazolam), hypnotics (pentobarbital, thiamylal), depolarizing neuromuscular blocking agents (vecuronium, pancuronium and suxamethonium), an antihypertensive agent (clonidine) and an H2-receptor blocking agent (cimetidine) using human liver microsomes in vitro. METHODS: The interaction effects between lidocaine and premedication were examined using human liver microsomal preparations and monitored for enzyme activity. The lidocaine and its main metabolite (monoethylglycinexylide) were measured by HPLC/UV. RESULTS: Lidocaine metabolism was non-competitively inhibited by midazolam (Ki = 77.6 microM). Thiamylal was a competitive inhibitor of lidocaine metabolism (Ki = 885 microM). Cimethidine, pancuronium and vecuronium weakly inhibited lidocaine metabolism in a concentration-depend manner over the therapeutic range in human liver microsomes. On the contrary, suxamethonium, pentobarbital and clonidine did not inhibit lidocaine metabolism over the therapeutic range in human liver microsomes. CONCLUSION: These results show that the interactions between lidocaine and midazolam and thiamylal are of potential toxicological and clinical significance.

Estradiol stimulates vascular endothelial growth factor and interleukin-6 in human lactotroph and lactosomatotroph pituitary adenomas.

Estrogens are considered to be critically involved in lactotroph and lactosomatotroph pituitary tumor development. In addition to direct effects, estradiol-induced tumor formation may involve alterations in growth factor and cytokine production. We have studied whether estradiol stimulates the production of the angiogenic vascular endothelial growth factor and the potential tumor progression factor interleukin-6 in 5 lactotroph (LA) and 5 lactosomatotroph (LSA) human pituitary adenoma cell cultures. All tumors secreted heterogenous basal amounts of VEGF (18.0 +/- 1.4 to 425 +/- 26 pg/ml per 24 h) and IL-6 (18.1 +/- 1.5 to 604 +/- 17 pg/ml per 24 h). Estradiol (100 nM) significantly enhanced VEGF release in all LA and LSA cell cultures (47 to 168 % above basal). IL-6 secretion was stimulated in 3 out of 5 LA and in all LSA cell cultures (31 to 287 % above basal). In cell cultures obtained from tumors from which sufficient cells could be isolated, a dose-dependent effect of estradiol (1 to 100 nM) on VEGF and IL-6 production was observed. Stimulation of IL-6 and/or VEGF secretion by estradiol in the majority of human lactotroph and lactosomatotroph adenoma cell cultures studied, suggests that estrogens may contribute to adenoma expansion through the stimulation of these auto-/paracrine-acting adenoma progression factors.

A study of the in vitro clinical interaction between lidocaine and premedications using rat liver microsomes.

In this study, we have investigated the relationship between lidocaine metabolism and premedication, i.e., psychotropic and anti-anxiety agents (diazepam, midazolam), hypnotics (pentobarbital, thiamylal), depolarizing muscular relaxants (vecuronium, pancuronium and suxamethonium), an active anti-hypertensive (clonidine) and an H2 receptor antagonist (cimetidine) using rat hepatic microsomes in vitro. Lidocaine metabolism was noncompetitively inhibited by midazolam (Ki=29.0 microM). Thilamylal was a moderate competitive inhibitor of lidocaine metabolism (Ki=77.8 microM). Pentobarbital, diazepam and cimetidine weakly inhibited lidocaine metabolism formation in a concentration-dependent manner at high substrate concentrations. On the other hand, vecuronium, pancuronium, suxamethonium and clonidine did not inhibit lidocaine metabolism over the therapeutic range. These results show that the interaction between lidocaine and midazolam and thiamylal, catalyzed by a similar cytochrome P450, is of potential importance in toxicological and clinical studies.

Usefulness of double gene construct for rapid identification of transgenic mice exhibiting tissue-specific gene expression.

Identification of transgenics still requires PCR and genomic Southern blot hybridization of genomic DNA isolated from tail pieces. Furthermore, identification of transgene-expressing transgenics (hereafter called "expressor") requires mRNA analyses (RT-PCR and Northern blot hybridization) or protein analysis (Western blotting and immunohistochemical staining using specific antibodies). These approaches are often labor-intensive and time-consuming. We developed a technique that simplifies the process of screening expressor transgenics using enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP), a noninvasive reporter recently utilized in a variety of organisms, including mice, as a tag. We constructed a MNCE transgene consisting of two expression units, MBP-NCre (termed "MN") and CAG-EGFP (termed "CE"). MN consists of a myelin basic protein (MBP) promoter and NCre gene (Cre gene carrying a nuclear localization signal (NLS) sequence at its 5' end). CE consists of a promoter element, CAG composed of cytomegalovirus (CMV) enhancer and chicken beta-actin promoter, and EGFP cDNA. Of a total of 72 F0 mice obtained after pronuclear injection of MNCE at 1-cell egg stage, 15 were found to express EGFP when the tail, eye, and inner surface of the ear were inspected for EGFP fluorescence under UV illumination at weaning stage. These fluorescent mice were found to possess MNCE and to express NCre mRNA in a brain-specific manner. Mice exhibiting no fluorescence were transgenic or nontransgenic. Mice carrying MNCE, but exhibiting no fluorescence, never expressed NCre mRNA in any organs tested. These findings indicate that (i) direct inspection of the surface of mice for fluorescence under UV illumination enables identification of expressor transgenics without performances of the molecular biological analyses mentioned above, and (ii) systemic promoters such as CAG do not affect the tissue-specificity of a tissue-specific promoter such as MBP promoter, which is located upstream of CAG by approximately 2 kb.

Plasma lidocaine concentrations during continuous thoracic epidural anesthesia after clonidine premedication in children.

UNLABELLED: There is no report concerning oral clonidine's effects on epidural lidocaine in children. Therefore, we performed a study to assess the concentrations of plasma lidocaine and its major metabolite (monoethylglycinexylidide [MEGX]) in children receiving continuous thoracic epidural anesthesia after oral clonidine premedication. Ten pediatric patients, aged 1-9 yr, were randomly allocated to the Control or Clonidine 4 microg/kg group (n = 5 each). Anesthesia was induced and maintained with sevoflurane in oxygen and air (FIO2 40%). Epidural puncture and tubing were carefully performed at the Th11-12 intervertebral space. An initial dose of 1% lidocaine (5 mg/kg) was injected through a catheter into the epidural space, followed by 2.5 mg x kg(-1) x h(-1). Plasma concentrations of lidocaine and MEGX were measured at 15 min, 30 min, and every 60 min for 4 h after the initiation of continuous epidural injection. The concentrations of lidocaine and MEGX were measured using high-pressure liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection. Hemodynamic variables were similar between members of the Control and Clonidine groups during anesthesia. The Clonidine group showed significantly smaller lidocaine concentrations (p < 0.05) and the concentration of MEGX tended to be smaller in the plasma of the Clonidine group for the initial 4 h after the initiation of epidural infusion. In conclusion, oral clonidine preanesthetic medication at a dose of 4 microg/kg decreases plasma lidocaine concentration in children. IMPLICATIONS: Oral clonidine decreases the plasma lidocaine concentration in children. Our finding may have clinical implications in patients receiving continuous epidural anesthesia. Additionally, perhaps an additional margin of safety regarding lidocaine toxicity is gained through the use of oral clonidine in children who will receive epidural lidocaine.

An Arabidopsis sigma factor (SIG2)-dependent expression of plastid-encoded tRNAs in chloroplasts.

A eubacteria-type RNA polymerase (PEP) plays crucial roles for chloroplast development in higher plants. The core subunits are encoded on plastid DNA (rpo genes) while the regulatory sigma factors are encoded on the nuclear DNA (SIG genes). However, the definite gene specificity of each sigma factor is unknown. We recently identified an Arabidopsis recessive pale-green mutant abc1 in which T-DNA is inserted in SIG2 (sigB). In this mutant, almost normal etioplasts were developed under dark conditions while the small chloroplasts with poor thylakoid membranes and stacked lamellar were developed under light conditions. The sig2-1 mutant was deficient in accumulating enough photosynthetic and photosynthesis-related proteins as well as chlorophyll. However, mRNAs of their structural genes were not significantly reduced. Further analyses revealed that several plastid-encoded tRNAs including trnE-UUC that has dual function for protein and ALA biosyntheses were drastically reduced in the sig2-1 mutant. In contrast, nucleus-encoded T7 phage-type RNA polymerase (NEP)-dependent gene transcripts were steadily accumulated in the mutant. These results indicate that progress of chloroplast development requires SIG2-dependent expression of plastid genes, particularly some of the tRNA genes.

FR226807: a potent and selective phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor.

We describe the pharmacological characteristics of a novel phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor FR226807, N-(3,4-dimethoxybenzyl)-2-[[(1R)-2-hydroxy-1-methylethyl]amino]-5-nitrobenzamide. FR226807 inhibited phosphodiesterase type 5 isolated from human platelets with an IC(50) value of 1.1 nM. FR226807 also inhibited phosphodiesterase type 6 with an IC(50) of 20 nM; however, the IC(50) value for phosphodiesterase type 6 was 18-fold higher than that for phosphodiesterase type 5. The IC(50) values of FR226807 for other phosphodiesterases (phosphodiesterase type 1, phosphodiesterase type 2, phosphodiesterase type 3, and phosphodiesterase type 4) were 1000-fold higher than that for phosphodiesterase type 5. FR226807 increased the cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) content in corpus cavernosum isolated from rabbit, an effect associated with relaxation of the muscle. FR226807 enhanced the relaxation response induced by electrical field stimulation of corpus cavernosum isolated from the rabbit. In an anesthetized dog model for the evaluation of erectile function, intravenous administration of FR226807 prolonged the time to return to 75% of maximal intracavernosal pressure after cessation of electrical stimulation of the pelvic nerve. In summary, FR226807 is a potent and highly selective phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor with an augmentative effect on penile erection and will be useful for the treatment of erectile dysfunction.

Determination of plasma bromvalerylurea and its main metabolite by a simple high-performance liquid chromatographic method and quantitation of bromide by energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry in carbon tetrachloride-intoxicated rats.

In the present study, small volumes of plasma were used for the measurement of bromvalerylurea (BVU), its metabolite, 3-methylbutyrylurea (MVU), and bromide in carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-treated rats by HPLC-UV and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry. A liquid-liquid extraction system was also investigated. BVU and MVU were extracted from 100 microl plasma samples in a single-step involving deproteination with 1 M hydrochloric acid using ethenzamide as internal standard. Samples were separated by HPLC in an acetonitrile-8 mM potassium dihydrogenphosphate buffer (35:65, v/v) mobile phase at a flow-rate of 0.4 ml/min on a 15 cm octadecylsilyl column at room temperature. Analytes were detected at a wavelength of 210 nm. The limits of quantitation for BVU, MVU and bromide are 0.1, 0.1 and 50 microg/ml, respectively. The intra-day accuracies over the range of concentrations were 95.8 to 121.1%, 97.2 to 119.7% and 96.2 to 105.8% for BVU, MVU and bromide, respectively. The inter-day accuracies were 97.7 to 115.1%, 98.3 to 111.6% and 98.3 to 102.9% for BVU, MVU and bromide, respectively. The absolute recoveries using tert.-butyl methyl ether are 96-98% for BVU and 95-98% for MVU. The decline in the plasma concentrations of BVU in olive oil-treated rats fitted a one-compartment model and the plasma MVU level reached a peak at around 1.5-2 h and then decreased gradually. The elimination of BVU in CCl4 (1 ml/kg)-treated rats was delayed and MVU production was less than that in the olive oil-treated group. However, there was no difference in the plasma levels of bromide between CCl4-treated rats and control rats. rights reserved.

Effects of the gp130 cytokines ciliary neurotropic factor (CNTF) and interleukin-11 on pituitary cells: CNTF receptors on human pituitary adenomas and stimulation of prolactin and GH secretion in normal rat anterior pituitary aggregate cultures.

Two of the most potent cytokines regulating anterior pituitary cell function are leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) and interleukin (IL)-6, which belong to the cytokine family using the common gp130 signal transducer. Recently, the expression and action of two other members of this family, IL-11 and ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), on different cell lines has also been demonstrated. We studied the expression of the specific receptor subunits for CNTF in mammotropic, non-functioning and somatotropic tumors and the action of CNTF and IL-11 in the regulation of hormone secretion in these and normal pituitary cells. The mRNA for the alpha chain specific for the CNTF receptor was detected by Northern blot in tumors secreting prolactin (PRL) and GH and in non-functioning tumors. We found that both IL-11 and CNTF exerted a similar stimulatory effect on GH mRNA expression in somatotropic monolayer cell cultures from acromegalic tumors, but these cytokines had no significant influence on GH secretion. CNTF stimulates prolactin secretion in lactotropic monolayer cell cultures from patients with prolactinoma. In monolayer cell cultures from normal rat anterior pituitary, IL-11 and CNTF had no significant effect on the release of either GH or PRL, or on GH mRNA. However, when the cells were cultured in aggregate cultures, in which the three-dimensional structure of the cells is reconstituted, both cytokines, in doses at which they had no effect on monolayer cultures, significantly stimulated both PRL and GH secretion. These data show that IL-11 and CNTF may act as regulatory factors in anterior pituitary cells, in which the three-dimensional structure of the gland is of critical importance.

Successful induction of tumor-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes from patients with non-small cell lung cancer using CD80-transfected autologous tumor cells.

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) against human lung cancer cells are difficult to induce by a conventional method using tumor cell stimulation probably due to an insufficiency of tumor antigens (TA) or costimulatory molecules such as CD80. We, therefore, investigated the potential of CD80-transfected tumor cells as stimulators of the in vitro induction of autologous tumor-specific CTL from regional lymph node lymphocytes in patients with lung cancer. Five non-small cell lung cancer cell lines (two adenocarcinomas, 1 squamous cell carcinoma, 1 large cell carcinoma and 1 adenosquamous cell carcinoma) were established from surgical specimens and were successfully transduced with a plasmid constructed with expression vector pBj and human CD80 cDNA, using a lipofection method. CD80-transfected tumor cells (CD80-AT) significantly augmented the proliferation of autologous lymphocytes from all cases as compared with non-transfected tumor cells (AT). AT-stimulated lymphocytes from 4 out of 5 cases did not show any cytotoxicity against AT; however, lymphocytes stimulated with CD80-AT exhibited substantial cytotoxicity against parental AT in all 5 cases tested. AT-stimulated lymphocytes derived from only one out of 5 cases showed major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-class I-restricted cytokine production in response to AT, while the MHC-class I-restricted responses were found in CD80-AT-stimulated lymphocytes from 4 out of 5 cases. These results indicate that CD80 on tumor cells could be a beneficial costimulatory molecule to elicit CTL against lung cancer, and also show that TA recognized by CTL was frequently expressed on lung cancer cells.

Enhanced green fluorescent protein as a useful tag for rapid identification of homozygous transgenic mice.

We developed a technique that simplifies the process of confirming homozygous transgenics at preimplantation stages, which are the earliest stages used in test breeding, using enhanced green fluorescent protein as a tag. All the blastocysts obtained by mating with the combination of Tg/Tg male (homozygous for transgene) x +/+ female exhibited fluorescence.

Prolonged survival of mouse epididymal spermatozoa stored at room temperature.

The viability and fertility of isolated mouse epididymal spermatozoa kept for up to 7 days at various temperatures (4 degrees C, 22 degrees C, and 37 degrees C) were determined. Spermatozoa kept for 3 days at 22 degrees C were still active, while those kept at 37 degrees C or 4 degrees C exhibited great reduction in motility within 2 days after isolation. In vitro fertilizing abilities of spermatozoa left for 0, 1, 2, and 3 days at 22 degrees C were 69.2, 32.5, 9.5, and 4.9%, respectively, when the cleavage rate to two-cell stage was examined. Transfer of two-cell embryos produced in vitro with spermatozoa left for 1, 2, and 3 days at 22 degrees C resulted in production of fetuses with efficiencies of respectively 30.2, 11.5, and 16.7%, which were lower (63.3%) than that of embryos derived from in vitro fertilization with fresh spermatozoa. These findings indicate that spermatozoa kept for up to 3 days at 22 degrees C can fertilize oocytes, although at relatively low efficiency.

Lipopolysaccharide directly stimulates the intrapituitary interleukin-6 production by folliculostellate cells via specific receptors and the p38alpha mitogen-activated protein kinase/nuclear factor-kappaB pathway.

Bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) activates the immune system and induces increases in peripheral cytokines, which, in turn, affect the endocrine system. In particular, LPS-induced cytokines stimulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis to increase levels of antiinflammatory-acting glucocorticoids. In the present work, we show that LPS directly stimulates interleukin (IL)-6 release by mouse pituitary folliculostellate (FS) TtT/GF tumor cells and FS cells of mouse pituitary cell cultures. The stimulatory effect of LPS was strongly enhanced in the presence of serum, suggesting that LPS is only fully active as a complex with LPS-binding protein (LBP). Both TtT/GF cells and mouse pituitaries expressed CD14, which binds the LPS/LBP complex, and Toll-like receptor type 4, which induces LPS signals. LPS increased phospoinositol turnover in TtT/GF cells and induced phosphorylation of p38alpha mitogen-activated protein kinase and the inhibitor (IkappaB) of nuclear factor-kappa B. Nuclear factor-kappa B was activated by LPS in TtT/GF cells. Functional studies demonstrated that My4 (an antibody blocking the interaction between LPS/LBP and CD14), SB203580, (a specific inhibitor of p38alpha mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylation), dexamethasone, and the messenger RNA translation inhibitor cycloheximide all inhibited LPS-induced IL-6 production by TtT/GF cells and mouse pituitary FS cells. LPS-induced intrapituitary IL-6 may modulate the function of anterior pituitary cells during bacterial infection/inflammation.

Pericardial cyst in a child treated with video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery.

UNLABELLED: A pericardial cyst is a rare condition in childhood. We report on a 10-year-old girl who presented with an intrathoracic mass detected on a chest X-ray performed during a routine medical examination. She had no symptoms and a physical examination revealed no abnormalities. Ultrasonography, computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging showed a multiloculated cystic mass in the right upper thorax. The cyst was resected using a thoracoscopic procedure. Histologically, the findings were consistent with a pericardial cyst. Thoracoscopic surgery was an effective surgical technique even for such a young patient and the results successfully reduced the morbidity. CONCLUSION: A pericardial cyst, a rare condition in childhood, was treated successfully by video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery.

Three new nuclear genes, sigD, sigE and sigF, encoding putative plastid RNA polymerase sigma factors in Aarabidopsis thaliana.

Three new nuclear genes (sigD, sigE and sigF) of Arabidopsis thaliana, encoding putative plastid RNA polymerase sigma factors, were identified and analyzed. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that higher plant sigma factors fell into at least four distinct subgroups within a diverse protein family. In addition, Arabidopsis sig genes contained conserved chromosomal intron sites, indicating that these genes arose by DNA duplication events during plant evolution. Transcript analyses revealed two alternatively spliced transcripts generated from the sigD region, one of which is predicted to encode a sigma protein lacking the carboxy-terminal regions 3 and 4. Finally, the amino-terminal sequence of the sigF gene product was shown to function as a plastid-targeting signal using green fluorescent protein fusions.

The gp130 cytokines interleukin-11 and ciliary neurotropic factor regulate through specific receptors the function and growth of lactosomatotropic and folliculostellate pituitary cell lines.

Two of the most potent cytokines regulating anterior pituitary cell function are leukemia inhibitory factor and interleukin-6 (IL-6), which belong to the cytokine receptor family using the common gp130 signal transducer. We studied the actions of two other members of this family, IL-11 and ciliary neurotropic factor (CNTF), on folliculostellate (FS) cells (TtT/GF cell line) and lactosomatotropic cells (GH3 cell line). The messenger RNA (mRNA) for the alpha-chain specific for the IL-11 receptor (1.7 kb) and CNTF receptor (2 kb) are expressed on both cell types. In addition, we detected CNTF receptor mRNA in normal rat anterior pituitary cells. IL-11 (1.25-5 nM) dose dependently stimulated the proliferation of FS cells. CNTF, at doses from 0.4-2 nM, also significantly stimulated the growth of these cells. In addition, both cytokines significantly stimulated proliferation of lactosomatotropic GH3 cells, and CNTF stimulated hormone production (GH and PRL) at 24 h by these cells. At 16-72 h, IL-11 stimulates the secretion of the angiogenic factor vascular endothelial growth factor by FS cells. In addition, both GH3 and FS cells express CNTF mRNA. These data suggest that IL-11 and CNTF may act as growth and regulatory factors in anterior pituitary cells.

Bone metastasis after a resection of stage I and II primary lung cancer.

In the present study, we reviewed the patients who developed bone metastases after a surgical resection of primary lung cancer and evaluated their clinicopathological features. From 1992 to 1995, 177 patients with stage I and II primary lung cancer underwent a surgical resection at the Kitakyushu Municipal Medical Center. Bone metastases were detected in 14 patients (7.9%) by follow-up examinations including bone scintigraphy (scan). Bone metastasis was one of the most frequent extra-thoracic recurrent forms. Patients with adenocarcinoma tended to develop bone metastases more frequently than those with squamous cell carcinoma. In the preoperative bone scans, an abnormal uptake was observed in 76 patients (42.9%), and 10 (13.1%) of them were found to develop bone metastases in the follow-up studies. A microscopic examination of the primary tumor demonstrated close correlation between intratumoral and peritumoral lymphatic vessel invasion and postoperative development of bone metastases. A bone scan is a very useful and indispensable procedure for diagnosing bone metastases. However, this scan may also show false positive finding in a number of benign conditions. Therefore, a surgical resection should be considered as the first-line treatment for patients with positive findings in the bone scan when the diagnosis of bone metastasis can not be confirmed based on both their symptoms and other clinical examinations.